Kazakhstan Constitution Overview

Overview

The Kazakhstan Constitution, adopted on August 30, 1995, serves as the supreme law of the Republic of Kazakhstan, establishing the fundamental principles of the state and society, including a robust framework for human and civil rights and freedoms. It proclaims Kazakhstan as a democratic, secular, legal, and social state where the highest values are an individual, their life, rights, and freedoms. This foundational document is crucial for understanding pay equity, equal pay, and employment law in Kazakhstan, as it lays down the constitutional guarantees of equality and non-discrimination that underpin all subsequent legislation in these areas. The Constitution's preamble emphasizes the ideals of freedom, equality, and concord, reflecting a commitment to a just society where individuals are protected from arbitrary treatment and afforded equal opportunities. Historically, the adoption of the 1995 Constitution marked a significant milestone in Kazakhstan's post-independence development, replacing the 1993 Constitution and solidifying the nation's commitment to democratic values and human rights. It has undergone several amendments since its adoption, with major packages in 1998, 2007, 2011, 2017, 2019, and 2022, reflecting the evolving political and social landscape of the country. While some earlier amendments focused on strengthening presidential power, more recent reforms have aimed at modernizing the state and redistributing authority, indicating a continuous effort to refine the constitutional framework. These amendments, however, have consistently maintained the core principles of equality and human rights, which are directly relevant to employment and pay equity. The Constitution's key innovations pertinent to employment law and pay equity lie in its explicit guarantees of equality before the law and the prohibition of discrimination. Article 14, for instance, unequivocally states that everyone shall be equal before the law and court, and no one shall be subject to any discrimination for reasons of origin, social, property status, occupation, sex, race, nationality, language, attitude towards religion, convictions, place of residence, or any other circumstances. Furthermore, Article 24 guarantees the right to freedom of labor, free choice of occupation and profession, and, critically, the right to just remuneration for labor without discrimination. These articles provide the constitutional bedrock upon which specific laws, such as the Labor Code and the Law "On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Men and Women," are built, ensuring that the principles of fair and equal treatment in employment are upheld across the nation.

Definitions

The Kazakhstan Constitution, as a supreme legal instrument, establishes broad principles rather than providing exhaustive definitions for every term. However, the spirit and explicit wording of several articles allow for a clear understanding of key concepts relevant to pay equity and employment law. Central to these is the concept of "equality," which is enshrined in Article 14, declaring that "Everyone shall be equal before the law and court" and prohibiting discrimination on various grounds, including sex, race, nationality, and social status. This constitutional definition of equality extends beyond mere legal parity to encompass equal opportunities and non-discrimination in all spheres of life, including employment and remuneration. It implies that individuals should not face disadvantages in their professional lives or in their compensation due to characteristics unrelated to their work performance or qualifications. Another fundamental term, "labor," is addressed in Article 24, which guarantees "the right to freedom of labor, and the free choice of occupation and profession". This constitutional provision establishes the right of individuals to engage in work of their choosing, free from coercion or arbitrary restrictions. In the context of pay equity, this right to labor inherently includes the expectation of fair and just compensation for that labor. The Constitution further specifies the right to "just remuneration for labor without discrimination". While "remuneration" is not explicitly defined in the Constitution, its usage in conjunction with "just" and "without discrimination" clearly indicates that compensation for work must be equitable, non-discriminatory, and reflective of the value of the labor performed, irrespective of the worker's protected characteristics. The concept of "discrimination" is also implicitly and explicitly addressed. Article 14 directly prohibits discrimination "for reasons of origin, social, property status, occupation, sex, race, nationality, language, attitude towards religion, convictions, place of residence or any other circumstances". This comprehensive list of prohibited grounds for discrimination forms the constitutional basis for challenging unequal treatment in employment, including disparities in pay. While the Constitution itself does not delve into the nuances of direct or indirect discrimination, its broad prohibition serves as a mandate for subsequent legislation to define and address these forms of discrimination in detail. The constitutional commitment to preventing discrimination is a cornerstone for advancing pay equity, ensuring that all citizens have an equal chance to earn fair wages for their work.

Covered Employers

As the supreme law of the land, the Kazakhstan Constitution does not delineate specific employer size thresholds or sector-based exemptions; rather, its provisions on human and civil rights, including those related to labor and equality, apply universally across the entire jurisdiction of the Republic of Kazakhstan. This means that all employers, whether public or private, large corporations or small businesses, are constitutionally bound to uphold the principles of equality, non-discrimination, and just remuneration for labor. The Constitution establishes a foundational legal environment where the rights of individuals are paramount, and no entity operating within the state's territory is exempt from respecting these fundamental guarantees. This broad applicability ensures that the constitutional commitment to pay equity and fair employment practices is not limited to certain segments of the economy but is a universal expectation for all who engage in employment relationships. The universal scope of the Constitution implies that its principles extend to all forms of employment and all sectors of the economy. This includes state-owned enterprises, private companies, non-governmental organizations, and even individual employers. The absence of specific exemptions in the Constitution itself underscores the idea that the fundamental rights to equality and non-discrimination are inherent to every person and are not contingent upon the nature or size of their employer. While subsequent legislation, such as the Labor Code, may introduce more granular regulations, reporting requirements, or enforcement mechanisms that differentiate based on employer size or sector, these secondary laws must always remain consistent with the overarching constitutional mandates. The Constitution thus sets a high bar, ensuring that the basic tenets of fair labor practices are non-negotiable for any employer operating within Kazakhstan. Furthermore, the Constitution's role as a foundational document means that any future legislation or policy related to employment and pay equity must align with its universal principles. There are no phase-in periods or temporary exemptions specified within the Constitution for its core human rights provisions. This immediate and comprehensive applicability ensures that the constitutional protection against discrimination in remuneration is effective from the moment an employment relationship is established, regardless of the employer's characteristics. The state's responsibility, as outlined in the Constitution, is to ensure that these rights are respected and protected by all entities, thereby creating a legal framework where the pursuit of pay equity is a continuous and universal obligation for all employers in Kazakhstan.

Employee Rights

The Kazakhstan Constitution enshrines several fundamental rights for employees, forming the bedrock of labor protection and pay equity in the country. Foremost among these is the "right to freedom of labor, and the free choice of occupation and profession," ensuring that individuals can pursue their chosen careers without undue restriction. This freedom is complemented by the crucial guarantee of "just remuneration for labor without discrimination". This constitutional provision directly addresses pay equity, mandating that workers receive fair compensation for their work, and explicitly prohibits any form of discrimination in wages based on factors such as sex, origin, social status, or other irrelevant characteristics. This means that employees have a constitutional right to expect that their pay will be determined by the value of their work, rather than by discriminatory biases. Beyond remuneration, employees are also guaranteed the "right to safe and hygienic working conditions," emphasizing the state's commitment to protecting workers' health and well-being in the workplace. This right extends to ensuring that the work environment does not pose undue risks and that employers take necessary measures to maintain safety standards. Furthermore, the Constitution recognizes the "right to individual and collective labor disputes with the use of methods for resolving them, stipulated by law including the right to strike". This empowers employees to collectively bargain for better working conditions, including fair wages, and to seek redress for grievances through established legal mechanisms, including the right to organize and engage in industrial action. These rights are critical for enabling workers to advocate for their interests and challenge unfair labor practices, including pay discrimination. To exercise these rights, the Constitution provides for judicial protection. Article 13 states that "Everyone shall have the right to judicial protection of his rights and freedoms". This means that if an employee believes their constitutional rights, such as the right to just remuneration without discrimination, have been violated, they have the right to seek recourse through the courts. While the Constitution itself outlines the fundamental rights, the specific procedures for filing complaints, initiating legal action, and seeking remedies are detailed in subordinate legislation, such as the Labor Code and civil procedural laws. The constitutional guarantee of judicial protection ensures that these rights are not merely aspirational but are enforceable through the legal system, providing a vital avenue for employees to uphold their entitlements to fair and equal pay.

Pay Transparency Requirements

The Kazakhstan Constitution, as a foundational legal document, does not explicitly detail specific pay transparency requirements such as job posting salary ranges or pay scale publications. Its primary role is to establish overarching principles of equality and non-discrimination, which then serve as the constitutional basis for more specific legislation. However, the constitutional mandate for "just remuneration for labor without discrimination" (Article 24) inherently supports the spirit of pay transparency. For remuneration to be truly "just" and "without discrimination," there must be a degree of clarity and openness regarding how pay is determined, even if the Constitution does not prescribe the exact mechanisms for achieving this transparency. The absence of explicit transparency clauses in the Constitution means that these detailed requirements are left to be developed and implemented through ordinary laws and regulations, such as the Labor Code or specific anti-discrimination legislation. The constitutional principle of equality before the law (Article 14) and the prohibition of discrimination on various grounds, including sex and social status, further imply a need for transparency in pay practices to ensure compliance. Without some level of transparency, it becomes exceedingly difficult for individuals to ascertain whether they are being subjected to discriminatory pay practices or if their remuneration is indeed "just." Therefore, while the Constitution does not impose direct obligations on employers to disclose salary ranges in job postings or publish pay scales, it creates a legal environment where such measures could be legitimately introduced by subsequent legislation to give practical effect to the constitutional guarantees of non-discrimination and equal pay. Any future laws mandating pay transparency would find their constitutional legitimacy in these fundamental principles. In essence, the Constitution sets the stage for a legal framework that values fairness and equality in employment, including compensation. While it does not provide specific deadlines or procedures for pay transparency, it empowers the state to enact laws that do. The expectation is that the legislative and executive branches will develop and enforce regulations that operationalize the constitutional commitment to non-discriminatory remuneration. This could include requirements for employers to provide information about pay structures, conduct internal pay equity analyses, or disclose salary information to employees or regulatory bodies, all aimed at ensuring that the constitutional right to just and non-discriminatory pay is effectively realized in practice.

Reporting & Audit Obligations

The Kazakhstan Constitution, being a document of supreme legal force, establishes the fundamental rights and principles but does not delve into the granular details of reporting and audit obligations for employers regarding pay equity. Its role is to provide the constitutional mandate for the state to ensure equality and non-discrimination in all spheres, including labor and remuneration. Article 14, which guarantees equality before the law and prohibits discrimination, and Article 24, which ensures just remuneration without discrimination, serve as the foundational principles that necessitate mechanisms for monitoring and ensuring compliance. While the Constitution itself does not specify report frequency, content requirements, or audit methodologies, it implicitly tasks the legislative and executive branches with creating such frameworks to uphold these constitutional rights. The responsibility for establishing detailed reporting and audit obligations therefore falls to subordinate legislation, such as the Labor Code, laws on gender equality, and other regulatory acts. These laws would define who must report, what information needs to be submitted, the frequency of such reports (e.g., annually, biennially), and the specific content requirements, which might include aggregated pay data broken down by gender, job category, or other relevant demographics. The constitutional commitment to a "social state" (Article 1) further supports the idea that the government has an active role in ensuring social justice, which includes monitoring and enforcing fair labor practices and pay equity across all sectors. Regarding audits, the Constitution does not name specific bodies responsible for conducting pay equity audits or set deadlines for them. However, the general framework for state oversight and judicial protection of rights implies that relevant government agencies and the judiciary would be empowered to investigate and audit compliance with labor laws, including those pertaining to equal pay. The Constitutional Council, for instance, ensures the supremacy of the Constitution and can review laws for their conformity with constitutional principles, indirectly influencing the development of robust audit mechanisms. The expectation is that national labor inspectorates or other designated bodies would be responsible for conducting or overseeing audits, utilizing methodologies designed to identify and rectify pay disparities. These audits would be a practical manifestation of the state's constitutional duty to protect citizens from discrimination and ensure just remuneration.

Governance & Enforcement Bodies

The Kazakhstan Constitution establishes a robust governmental structure designed to uphold the rule of law and protect the rights and freedoms of its citizens, including those related to pay equity and employment. At the apex of this structure is the President, who serves as the guarantor of the Constitution and human and civil rights and freedoms. The Parliament, comprising the Senate and the Mazhilis, is responsible for enacting laws, including those that detail labor rights, anti-discrimination measures, and mechanisms for ensuring pay equity. The Government, as the highest executive body, is tasked with implementing these laws and policies, ensuring their practical application across the country. These branches collectively form the legislative and executive framework for governance. Crucially, the Constitution vests significant authority in the judicial system for the enforcement of rights. Article 13 guarantees "Everyone shall have the right to judicial protection of his rights and freedoms". This means that individuals who believe their constitutional rights, including the right to just remuneration without discrimination, have been violated can seek redress through the courts. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body, overseeing the application of laws by lower courts. Additionally, the Constitutional Council plays a vital role in ensuring the supremacy of the Constitution, reviewing laws for their conformity with constitutional principles, and issuing binding interpretations. While not directly involved in individual complaint resolution, its decisions shape the legal landscape for all laws, including those pertaining to pay equity. For specific enforcement of labor and pay equity laws, the Constitution provides the framework for the establishment of specialized state bodies. Although the Constitution does not name specific labor inspectorates, it mandates the creation of state organs to implement its provisions. Consequently, the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population, along with its regional departments and labor inspectorates, are the primary administrative bodies responsible for monitoring compliance with labor legislation, investigating complaints of discrimination, and enforcing equal pay principles. Citizens can file complaints with these bodies, which are empowered to conduct inspections, issue directives, and impose administrative penalties. The interaction between these administrative bodies and the judicial system ensures a multi-layered approach to governance and enforcement, where administrative remedies can be pursued, and judicial review remains available for ultimate protection of constitutional rights.

Monitoring & Evaluation

The Kazakhstan Constitution, as the supreme legal framework, establishes the overarching principles for monitoring and evaluating the state's adherence to human and civil rights, including those pertaining to labor and pay equity. While it does not prescribe specific inspection procedures or audit frequencies, Article 1 and Article 13 lay the groundwork for a system where the state is obligated to protect individuals' rights and freedoms, and where judicial protection is guaranteed. This constitutional mandate implies that the state must actively monitor the implementation of laws designed to uphold these rights, including those related to just remuneration and non-discrimination in employment. The general responsibility for monitoring the observance of constitutional rights falls upon various state organs, with the judiciary playing a critical role in evaluating compliance through legal processes. In practice, the monitoring and evaluation of pay equity and labor rights are primarily conducted through mechanisms established by subordinate legislation, such as the Labor Code and specific laws on gender equality. These laws empower state labor inspectorates and other relevant government agencies to conduct inspections of workplaces. These inspections typically involve reviewing employment contracts, payroll records, job descriptions, and other relevant documentation to ensure compliance with labor standards, including equal pay provisions. Complaints from employees alleging discrimination or unfair pay practices trigger investigations, where the facts are gathered, and evidence is assessed against legal requirements. The frequency of these inspections can vary, often being a mix of routine checks and targeted investigations based on reported violations or risk assessments. The evaluation criteria for assessing compliance with pay equity principles, while not explicitly detailed in the Constitution, are derived from its fundamental tenets of equality and non-discrimination. These criteria would typically include whether employees performing work of equal value receive equal remuneration, irrespective of gender or other protected characteristics. The effectiveness of the monitoring and evaluation system is also subject to broader constitutional oversight, particularly by the Constitutional Council, which ensures that all laws and state actions conform to the Constitution's principles. Furthermore, Kazakhstan's commitment to international human rights instruments, such as ILO Conventions, provides additional benchmarks for evaluating the adequacy of its domestic legal framework and enforcement mechanisms in promoting pay equity and non-discrimination in employment.

Enforcement & Penalties

The Kazakhstan Constitution, as the foundational legal document, establishes the principle that violations of rights and freedoms shall be subject to legal responsibility, thereby providing the constitutional basis for enforcement and penalties related to pay equity and employment law. While the Constitution itself does not specify particular fine amounts, penalty ranges, or criminal liabilities, Article 13 guarantees "Everyone shall have the right to judicial protection of his rights and freedoms". This means that any infringement upon the constitutional right to "just remuneration for labor without discrimination" (Article 24) can lead to legal action and the imposition of penalties as defined by specific laws. The Constitution thus mandates that the state create a legal framework where violations of these fundamental rights are met with appropriate consequences. Specific details regarding enforcement and penalties are elaborated in the Labor Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan and other administrative and criminal codes. For instance, administrative offenses related to labor law violations, including discrimination in remuneration, can result in fines for employers. These fines can vary significantly depending on the severity of the violation, the number of affected employees, and whether it is a first-time or repeat offense. The aim of these penalties is not only to punish non-compliant employers but also to deter future violations and ensure adherence to equal pay principles. In cases of severe or repeated discrimination, or where violations amount to criminal offenses, individuals responsible could face criminal liability, including more substantial fines or even imprisonment, as prescribed by the criminal legislation. The appeals process for enforcement actions and penalties is also rooted in the constitutional right to judicial protection. If an employer is penalized, they have the right to appeal the decision through the administrative and judicial hierarchy. Similarly, employees who believe that enforcement actions were insufficient or that their rights were not adequately protected can also appeal. This multi-tiered system of appeal ensures due process and allows for a review of decisions, contributing to the fairness and effectiveness of the enforcement regime. The Constitutional Council, while not an appeals court for individual cases, can review the constitutionality of laws and regulations underpinning these penalties, ensuring that the entire enforcement framework aligns with the supreme law of the land.

Relationship to Other Laws

The Kazakhstan Constitution holds supreme legal force throughout the territory of the Republic, meaning all other laws and regulatory legal acts must conform to its provisions. This hierarchical relationship is explicitly stated in Article 4, which declares that the Constitution has "supreme legal force and direct effect throughout the territory of the Republic". Consequently, any legislation pertaining to pay equity, equal pay, or employment law, such as the Labor Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan or the Law "On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Men and Women," must be consistent with the fundamental rights and principles enshrined in the Constitution. Where conflicts arise, the Constitution takes precedence, and any law found to contradict it can be challenged and potentially invalidated by the Constitutional Council. The Constitution serves as the foundational document upon which the entire legal system, including labor and anti-discrimination laws, is built. For example, the Labor Code elaborates on the constitutional right to "just remuneration for labor without discrimination" (Article 24), providing detailed regulations on wages, working conditions, and dispute resolution mechanisms. Similarly, the Law "On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Men and Women" directly operationalizes the constitutional prohibition against discrimination (Article 14) by defining gender equality and outlining measures to achieve it in various spheres, including employment. These specific laws complement the Constitution by providing the necessary legal framework and procedural details for the practical implementation and enforcement of constitutional guarantees. Furthermore, the Constitution also addresses the relationship with international law. Article 4 states that "International treaties ratified by the Republic shall take precedence over its laws". This is a critical provision for pay equity, as Kazakhstan has ratified key international instruments such as ILO Convention No. 100 on Equal Remuneration and Convention No. 111 on Discrimination (Employment and Occupation). These international standards, once ratified, become an integral part of Kazakhstan's legal system and take precedence over national laws in case of conflict, further strengthening the constitutional commitment to equal pay and non-discrimination. This ensures that Kazakhstan's domestic legal framework for pay equity is not only internally consistent but also aligned with global best practices and international human rights obligations.

International Context

The Kazakhstan Constitution, while a domestic legal instrument, is deeply intertwined with international legal norms and obligations, particularly concerning human rights, labor standards, and equality. Article 4 of the Constitution explicitly states that "International treaties ratified by the Republic shall take precedence over its laws," establishing a monist system where ratified international agreements become an integral part of the national legal framework and supersede domestic legislation in case of conflict. This provision is crucial for pay equity, as Kazakhstan has ratified several key international labor conventions, including the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 100 concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value, and Convention No. 111 concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation. The ratification of ILO Convention No. 100 obliges Kazakhstan to promote and, in so far as is consistent with the methods in operation for determining rates of remuneration, ensure the application to all workers of the principle of equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value. Similarly, Convention No. 111 requires Kazakhstan to declare and pursue a national policy designed to promote equality of opportunity and treatment in respect of employment and occupation, with a view to eliminating any discrimination. These international commitments reinforce the constitutional principles of equality (Article 14) and the right to just remuneration without discrimination (Article 24), providing a robust international framework that guides and strengthens Kazakhstan's domestic efforts towards achieving pay equity. The Constitution thus provides the domestic legal basis for upholding these international standards, ensuring that national laws and policies are developed in alignment with global best practices. Globally, there is a growing trend towards greater pay transparency and stricter enforcement of equal pay principles, often driven by international instruments and regional directives like those within the European Union. While Kazakhstan is not an EU member, its adherence to ILO conventions places it within a broader international movement towards gender equality in the workplace. The constitutional provision giving precedence to ratified international treaties means that any future developments in international labor law or interpretations of existing conventions could directly influence Kazakhstan's legal landscape for pay equity. This international context not only provides a benchmark for evaluating Kazakhstan's progress but also serves as a continuous impetus for strengthening its domestic legal and policy framework to ensure that the constitutional promise of non-discriminatory remuneration is fully realized for all its citizens.

Implementation Timeline

Date	Milestone	Status
August 30, 1995	Adoption of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan via republican referendum	In Force
October 7, 1998	First major package of constitutional amendments adopted by Parliament	In Force (Amended)
May 21, 2007	Constitutional amendments, including changes to Article 9 (language in Kazakh text) and Article 15 (death penalty)	In Force (Amended)
February 2, 2011	Constitutional amendments adopted	In Force (Amended)
March 10, 2017	Constitutional amendments, including changes to presidential powers and judicial system	In Force (Amended)
March 23, 2019	Constitutional amendments adopted by Parliament	In Force (Amended)
June 8, 2022	Constitutional amendments, including changes to Article 4 (legal force) and Article 15 (death penalty)	In Force (Amended)
September 17, 2022	Constitutional amendments, including changes to Article 42 (presidential oath)	In Force (Amended)

Compliance Checklist

Requirement	Action Required	Deadline
Adherence to Constitutional Principles of Equality	Ensure all employment policies, practices, and remuneration structures align with Article 14 (equality before law, non-discrimination) and Article 24 (just remuneration without discrimination).	Ongoing
Non-Discrimination in Hiring and Employment	Review recruitment, hiring, promotion, and termination processes to eliminate any direct or indirect discrimination based on origin, sex, race, nationality, social status, or other prohibited grounds.	Ongoing
Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value	Establish and maintain remuneration systems that ensure men and women receive equal pay for performing work of equal value, as mandated by Article 24. Conduct internal pay equity analyses regularly.	Ongoing
Safe and Hygienic Working Conditions	Provide working conditions that meet safety and hygiene requirements, as guaranteed by Article 24. Implement and regularly review occupational health and safety protocols.	Ongoing
Respect for Freedom of Labor and Choice of Profession	Ensure employees have the freedom to choose their occupation and profession and are not subjected to forced labor, in accordance with Article 24.	Ongoing
Protection of Labor Dispute Rights	Recognize and respect employees' rights to individual and collective labor disputes, including the right to strike, as outlined in Article 24. Establish clear internal grievance procedures.	Ongoing
Judicial Protection of Rights	Inform employees of their right to seek judicial protection for any violation of their constitutional labor rights, including pay discrimination, as per Article 13.	Upon Request/As Needed
Compliance with Subordinate Legislation	Ensure full compliance with the Labor Code and other laws (e.g., Law "On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Men and Women") that operationalize constitutional labor and equality rights.	Ongoing
Alignment with Ratified International Treaties	Ensure that all labor and pay practices are consistent with international treaties ratified by Kazakhstan, such as ILO Conventions 100 and 111, which take precedence over national laws.	Ongoing
Internal Policy Review and Update	Regularly review and update internal company policies and codes of conduct to reflect constitutional principles of equality, non-discrimination, and fair remuneration.	Annually or as laws change

Sources and References

Source	Type
Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan - ILO NATLEX Database	official
Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan - Codices	official
Kazakhstan 1995 (rev. 2017) Constitution - Constitute Project (official source for text)	official
On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Men and Women - Әділет	official
Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan as of July 11,1997 № 151-I On Languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan - ILO NATLEX Database	official
Kazakhstan - Global Gender Equality Constitutional Database - UN Women	official
Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan - Unofficial translation - Astana International Financial Centre	official
The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 8 December, 2009 № 223–IV "On State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Men and Women", as amended as of January 2025 | Refworld	official
LAW OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN - Legislationline	official